Killer Genius ( High school Of The Dead ) Chapter 2

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The longest songs ever recorded

5 September 2020, 21:00 | Updated: 8 September 2020, 17:10

Pink Floyd in 1973: Rick Wright, Dave Gilmour, Nick Mason and Roger Waters. Picture: Michael Ochs Archives/Getty Images

Which songs seem to go on for days? Let's take a listen...

The Stone Roses - Fool's Gold (9.53)

53 seconds of song and 9 minutes of John Squire's wah-wah guitar. You can always try the 4.15 version… if you're a LIGHTWEIGHT.

Primal Scream - Come Together (10.21)

A trippy excursion into the furthest reaches of Bobby Gillespie's brain, the original version on 1991's Screamadelica breaks the ten minute barrier. Meanwhile, the actual song Screamadelica is 10.46 and was included on the Dixie Narco EP.

David Bowie - Station To Station (10.14)

This extended work out takes half a side of Bowie's 1976 album and was a huge influence on long-song fans Kraftwerk, inspiring their Trans-Europe Express album.

The Doors - The End (11.43)

The LA mystics loved a long song, but this is one of the most famous - it concluded their incredible, self-titled debut album of 1967.

Orbital - Chime (12.46)

The original 1989 debut 12" single from the brothers Hartnoll lasted an epic 12 minutes. It was almost eclipsed by the hypnotic B-side, Deeper, which was 15 and a half minutes long. Night night!

Flowered Up - Weekender (12.53*)

The epic, epic 1992 single from the baggy legends. Lasts almost as long as an entire weekend.

* the video was equally epic and goes on a bit longer than the track

Mogwai - Mogwai Fear Satan (16.19)

The final song from the Glasgow band's 1997 debut album Mogwai Young Team. It sticks around a while.

Spiritualized - Cop Shoot Cop (17.14)

A typically blissed out offering from the Ladies And Gentlemen We Are Floating In Space album of 1997. Goes on a bit.

The Velvet Underground - Sister Ray (17.28)

Taken from the 1968 album White Light/White Heat, this extended jam bored the engineer so much he reportedly walked out of the studio and left the band to it.

New Order - Elegia (17.30)

This extended waltz was edited down to fit on the band's 1985 album Low-Life, but the full 17 minutes finally appeared on the 2002 box set Retro.

Pink Floyd - Echoes (23.35)

The Floyd loved a long song, but this classic- from 1971's Meddle album - is one of the most memorable. It makes Shine On You Crazy Diamond look anaemic at just 13 and a half minutes.

Kraftwerk - Autobahn (22.43)

The electronic pioneers came from a prog rock background, so they liked to stretch out in live performance. The title track of their influential 1974 album takes up the whole first side and depicts a car journey via the medium of squelchy synthesised sound.

The Orb - The Blue Room (39.58)

In June 1992, Alex Paterson's ambient electronica project issued a track that would clock in at just under 40 minutes - any longer than that and the BPI considered the "single" to be an "album". He had previous form: A Huge Ever Growing Pulsating Brain That Rules From The Centre Of The Ultraworld from The Orb's debut LP lasts just under 19 minutes.

SPECIAL MENTION TO…

The Flaming Lips - 7 Skies H3 (24.00.00)

Wayne Coyne's eccentric attempt to record a 24-hour song was successful - they had to issue the thing on a flash drive. As a limited edition. Of 13. Encased in human skulls. No, really! A 50-minute "digest" was released as an album for Record Store Day 2014. Here's the "single" edit.

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Longest officially released song

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WhoMICHAEL BOSTWICK, KELLEY BOSTWICK

What13:23:32 HOUR(S):MINUTE(S):SECOND(S)

WhereUNITED STATES (PALMER)

When01 NOVEMBER 2016

The longest officially released song is "The Rise and Fall of Bossanova (A 13:23:32 song)" by PC III (USA) which lasts 13 hr 23 min 32 sec, released on 1 November 2016.

Michael and Kelley Bostwick beat the current record by more than 10 hours to regain their title.

All records listed on our website are current and up-to-date. For a full list of record titles, please use our Record Application Search. (You will need to register / login for access)

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Elizabeth Raffald

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to navigationJump to searchElizabeth Raffald

Engraving of Elizabeth Raffald, from the 1782 edition of her cookery book

Born

Elizabeth Whitaker

1733

Doncaster, England

Died

19 April 1781 (aged 47–48)

Stockport, England

Nationality

English

Occupation

Housekeeper, businesswoman, author

Known for

The Experienced English Housekeeper (1769)

Spouse(s)

John Raffald

(m. 1763)

Children

probably six daughters[a]

Elizabeth Raffald (1733 – 19 April 1781) was an English author, innovator and entrepreneur.

Born and raised in Doncaster, Yorkshire, Raffald went into domestic service for fifteen years, ending as the housekeeper to the Warburton baronets at Arley Hall, Cheshire. She left her position when she married John, the estate's head gardener. The couple moved to Manchester, Lancashire, where Raffald opened a register office to introduce domestic workers to employers; she also ran a cookery school and sold food from the premises. In 1769 she published her cookery book The Experienced English Housekeeper, which contains the first recipe for a "Bride Cake" that is recognisable as a modern wedding cake. She is possibly the inventor of the Eccles cake.

In August 1772 Raffald published The Manchester Directory, a listing of 1,505 traders and civic leaders in Manchester—the first such listing for the up-and-coming town. The Raffalds went on to run two important post houses in Manchester and Salford before running into financial problems, possibly brought on by John's heavy drinking. Raffald began a business selling strawberries and hot drinks during the strawberry season. She died suddenly in 1781, just after publishing the third edition of her directory and while still updating the eighth edition of her cookery book.

After her death there were fifteen official editions of her cookery book, and twenty-three pirated ones. Her recipes were heavily plagiarised by other authors, notably by Isabella Beeton in her bestselling Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management (1861). Raffald's recipes have been admired by several modern cooks and food writers, including Elizabeth David and Jane Grigson.

Contents

1Biography1.1Early life

1.2Business career

2Works2.1Cookery

2.2Directory

3Legacy

4Notes and references4.1Notes

4.2References

4.3Sources

5External links

Biography

Early life

Arley Hall, Cheshire, where Raffald was employed as the housekeeper

Raffald was born Elizabeth Whitaker in Doncaster, one of the five daughters of Joshua and Elizabeth Whitaker.[1][2][b] Raffald was baptised on 8 July 1733. She was given a good schooling, which included learning French.[6] At fifteen she began working in service as a kitchen maid, and rose to the position of housekeeper. Her final post as a domestic servant was at Arley Hall, Cheshire, North West England, where she was housekeeper for Lady Elizabeth Warburton, from the family of the Warburton baronets. Starting work in December 1760, Raffald was paid £16 a year.[7][c] In all she spent fifteen years in service.[9]

After a few years working for the Warburtons, Elizabeth married John Raffald, the head gardener at Arley Hall.[d] The ceremony took place on 3 March 1763 at St Mary and All Saints Church, Great Budworth, Cheshire; on 23 April the couple left the Warburtons' service and moved to Fennel Street, Manchester,[1][12] where John's family tended market gardens near the River Irwell.[13] Over the following years, the couple had probably six daughters.[a] The girls each had their own nurse, and when going out, were dressed in clean white dresses, with the nurses in attendance; at least three of the girls went to boarding schools.[1]

Business career

Raffald's advertisement of November 1763 in the Manchester Mercury

John opened a floristry shop near Fennel Street; Raffald began an entrepreneurial career at the premises. She rented her spare rooms for storage, began a register office to bring together, for a fee, domestic staff with employers,[17] and advertised that she was "pleased to give her business of supplying cold entertainments, hot French dishes, confectionaries, &c."[18] Over the next few years her business grew, and she added cookery classes to the services she supplied.[17] In August 1766 the Raffalds moved to what was probably a larger premises in Exchange Alley in Market Place.[e] Here John sold seeds and plants,[1][20] while Raffald, according to her advertisements in the local press, supplied "jellies, creams, possets, flummery, lemon cheese cakes, and all other decorations for cold entertainments; also, Yorkshire hams, tongues, brawn, Newcastle salmon, and sturgeon, pickles, and ketchups of all kinds, lemon pickles";[21] she also supplied the produce for, and organised, civic dinners.[17] The following year, alongside confectionery, she was also selling:

pistachio nuts, French olives, Portugal and French plumbs, prunellos [prunes], limes, preserved pine apples, and all sorts of dry and wet sweetmeats, both foreign and English. Also Turkey figs and other raisins, Jorden and Valencia almonds ... truffles, morels and all sorts of spices.[22]

Dedication in the 1769 edition of The Experienced English Housekeeper

In 1769 Raffald published her cookery book, The Experienced English Housekeeper, which she dedicated to Lady Warburton.[1][23][f] As was the practice for publishers at the time, Raffald had obtained subscribers—those who had pre-paid for a copy. The first edition was supported by more than 800 subscribers which raised over £800.[19][25][g] The subscribers paid five shillings when the book was published; the non-subscribers paid six.[26] The book was "printed by a neighbour whom I can rely on doing it the strictest justice, without the least alteration".[27] The neighbour was Joseph Harrop, who published the Manchester Mercury, a weekly newspaper in which Raffald had advertised extensively.[25][28] She described the book as a "laborious undertaking"[29] that had damaged her health as she had been "too studious and giving too close attention" to it.[29] In an attempt to avoid piracy of her work, Raffald signed the front page of each copy of the first edition.[30]

In the introduction to The Experienced English Housekeeper, Raffald states "I can faithfully assure my friends that ... [the recipes] are wrote from my own experience and not borrowed from any other author".[27] Like her predecessor Hannah Glasse, who wrote The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy in 1747, Raffald did not "gloss ... over with hard names or words of high style, but wrote in ...[her] own plain language".[27] The historian Kate Colquhoun observes that Glasse and Raffald "wrote with an easy confidence", and both were the biggest cookery book sellers in the Georgian era.[31]

In 1771 Raffald released a second edition of The Experienced English Housekeeper, which included a hundred additional recipes.[32] The publisher was Robert Baldwin of 47 Paternoster Row, London, who had paid Raffald £1,400 for the copyright of the book.[33][34][h] When he asked her to change some of the Mancunian vernacular, she declined, stating "What I have written I proposed to write at the time; it was written deliberately, and I cannot admit of any alteration".[35] Further editions of the book appeared during her lifetime: in 1772 (printed in Dublin), 1773, 1775 and 1776 (all printed in London).[36][i]

In May 1771 Raffald advertised that she had begun to sell cosmetics from her shop, and listed the availability of distilled lavender water, wash balls, French soap, swan-down powder puffs, tooth powder, lip salve and perfumes.[37] The historian Roy Shipperbottom considers that her nephew—the perfumer to the King of Hanover—was probably the supplier of the items.[14] The same year she also assisted in setting up Prescott's Manchester Journal, the second Mancunian newspaper.[1][30]

The first page of The Manchester Directory, produced by Raffald in 1772

In August 1772 Raffald published The Manchester Directory,[j] a listing of 1,505 traders and civic leaders in Manchester. She wrote, "The want of a directory for the large and commercial town of Manchester having been frequently complained about ... I have taken on the arduous task of compiling a complete guide".[39] The following year a larger edition followed, also covering Salford.[1][k]

At some point the Raffalds had also run the Bulls Head tavern—an important post house in the area,[1][15] but in August 1772 the couple took possession of a coaching inn they described as:

the old accustomed and commodious inn, known by the sign of the Kings Head in Salford, Manchester, which they have fitted up in the neatest and most elegant manner, for the reception and accommodation of the nobility, gentry, merchants and tradesmen.[42]

With a large function room at the premises, the Raffalds hosted the annual dinner of the Beefsteak Club and hosted weekly "card assemblies" during the winter season.[34] Cox relates that Raffald's cuisine and her ability to speak French attracted foreign visitors to the inn.[1] Raffald's sister, Mary Whitaker, opened a shop opposite the Kings Head and began selling the same produce Raffald had from the Fennel Street outlet; Mary also restarted the servants' register office.[34]

The couple had problems at the Kings Head. John was drinking heavily and feeling suicidal; when he said he wanted to drown himself, Raffald replied "I do think that it might be the best step you could take, for then you would be relieved of all your troubles and anxieties and you really do harass me very much."[10] Thefts at the inn were common and trade did not flourish; money problems—possibly because they had overstretched themselves with their business dealings over two decades—brought creditors with their demands for repayment. John, as all the financial dealings were in his name, settled the debts by assigning over all the couple's assets and leaving the Kings Head;[43] he was declared bankrupt.[44] They moved back to Market Place in October 1779 where they occupied the Exchange Coffee House. John was made master of the business and Raffald provided food, chiefly soups.[45] During strawberry season she set up a business on the Kersal Moor Racecourse, near the ladies' stand, selling strawberries with cream, tea and coffee.[44][45]

Raffald's advertisement in the Manchester Mercury, July 1780, for selling refreshments at Kersal Moor racecourse

In 1781 the Raffalds' finances improved. Raffald updated The Manchester Directory and a third edition was published; she was compiling the eighth edition of The Experienced English Housekeeper and was writing a book on midwifery with Charles White, the physician and specialist in obstetrics.[1][45] She died suddenly on 19 April 1781 of "spasms, after only one hour's illness";[10] the description is now considered to describe a stroke.[44] The historian Penelope Corfield considers John's bankruptcy may have been a factor in Raffald's early death.[46] She was buried at St Mary's Church, Stockport on 23 April.[10]

A week after Raffald's death, John's creditors took action and he was forced to close the coffee shop and sell off all his assets;[10] initially he attempted to let it as a going concern, but there were no offers, so the lease and all his furniture was handed over to settle the debts.[12] The copyright for the midwifery manuscript seems to have been sold; it is not known if it was ever published, but if it was, Raffald's name did not appear in it.[1] John moved to London soon after Raffald's death and "lived extravagantly", according to Cox. He remarried and returned to Manchester after his money had run out. He reformed on his return, and joined the Wesleyan Methodist Church, where he attended chapel for the next thirty years.[47] He died in December 1809, aged 85 and was buried in Stockport.[43][48]

Works

Cookery

Frontispiece from the 1825 edition of The Experienced English Housekeeper

For the first edition of The Experienced English Housekeeper, Raffald had tested all the recipes herself; for the second edition in 1771, she added 100 recipes, some of which she had bought and not tested, but, she informed her readers, she had "weighed them the best I could".[39] Colquhoun considers that the recipes Raffald wrote were those that appealed to Middle England, including "shredded calves' feet, hot chicken pies and carrot puddings, poached eggs on toast, macaroni with parmesan, and lettuce stewed in mint and gravy".[49][50] Raffald was, Colquhoun writes, typical of her time, as she did not want to use garlic, preferred to eat crisp vegetables, and used grated horseradish and cayenne pepper—the last of these Colquhoun describes as "the taste of Empire".[51]

The Experienced English Housekeeper comprises recipes for food and drink only and, unlike many other cookery books of the time, there are no recipes for medicines or perfumes. The work contains one page with instructions for laying the table, and no instructions for servants.[52] More than a third of the recipes in The Experienced English Housekeeper were given over to confectionery, including an early recipe for "Burnt Cream" (crème brûlée), details of how to spin sugar into sugar baskets and instructions of how to create multi-layered jellies, which included in them "fish made from flummery or hen's nests from thinly sliced, syrup poached lemon rind".[53]

The food historian Esther Bradford Aresty considers that "fantasy was Mrs. Raffald's specialty",[54] and cites examples of "A Transparent Pudding Cover'd with a Silver Web, and Globes of Gold with Mottoes in Them", "A Rocky Island", which has peaks of gilded Flummery, a sprig of myrtle decorated with meringue, and a calves-foot jelly sea.[54] Colquhoun thinks some of the recipes are "just a bit bizarre",[49] including the "Rabbit Surprised", where the cook is instructed, after roasting, to "draw out the jaw-bones and stick them in the eyes to appear like horns".[55]

Colquhoun admires Raffald's turn of phrase, such as the advice to reserve water from a raised-pie pastry, as "it makes the crust sad".[56][57] Shipperbottom highlights Raffald's phrases such as "dry salt will candy and shine like diamonds on your bacon",[39][l] and that wine "summer-beams and blinks in the tub" if barm is not added in time.[39][59]

According to the lexicographer John Ayto, Raffald was the first writer to provide a recipe for crumpets; she provided an early recipe in English cuisine for cooking yams,[60] and an early reference to barbecuing.[61][m] Ahead of her time, she was a proponent of adding wine to dishes while there was still cooking time left, "to take off the rawness, for nothing can give a made dish a more disagreeable taste than raw wine or fresh anchovy".[56][63]

Directory

1772 advertisement for The Manchester Directory

Raffald published three editions of The Manchester Directory, in 1772, 1773 and 1781.[1] To compile the listing, she sent "proper and intelligent Persons round the Town, to take down the Name, Business, and place of Abode of every Gentleman, Tradesman, and Shop-keeper, as well as others whose Business or Employment has any tendency to public Notice".[64] The historian Hannah Barker, in her examination of businesswomen in northern England, observes that this process could take weeks or months to complete.[65] The work was divided into two sections: first, a list of the town's traders and the civic elite, in alphabetical order; second, a list of Manchester's major religious, trade, philanthropic and governmental organisations and entities.[66]

Raffald did not list her shop under her own name, but it was recorded under that of her husband, as "John Raffald Seedsman and Confectioner";[38] Barker observes that this was different from Raffald's usual approach, as her shop and book were both advertised under her own name.[67] The Directory contains listings of 94 women in trade—only 6 per cent of the total listings; of those, 46 were listed as widows, which the historian Margaret Hunt considers "a suspiciously large proportion".[68]

Historians have used Raffald's Directory to study the role of women in business in the 18th century.[n] Barker warns of potential drawbacks with the material, including that only women trading independently of their families, or those who were widowed or single, were likely to be listed, but any woman who traded in partnership with her husband—such as Raffald—would be listed under her husband's name.[73] Hunt points out that there are no keepers of lodging houses listed; directories that cover other towns list significant numbers, but the category is absent from Raffald's work.[38]

Legacy

A memorial plaque to Raffald, Stockport

Baldwin brought out the eighth edition of The Experienced English Housekeeper shortly after Raffald died. Throughout her life she had refused to have her portrait painted, but Baldwin included an engraving of her in this edition, wearing a headdress that one of her daughters had made.[43] The Experienced English Housekeeper was a popular book and remained in print for nearly fifty years.[74] Fifteen authorised editions of her book were published and twenty-three pirated ones: the last edition appeared in 1810.[75][76] Along with Hannah Glasse's 1747 work The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy and Eliza Smith's The Compleat Housewife (1727), The Experienced English Housekeeper was one of the cookery books popular in colonial America.[77] Copies had been taken over by travellers and "The Experienced Housekeeper" was printed there.[43]

Raffald's work was plagiarised heavily throughout the rest of the 18th and 19th century; the historian Gilly Lehman writes that Raffald was one of the most copied cookery book writers of the century.[78] Writers who copied Raffald's work include Isabella Beeton, in her bestselling Mrs Beeton's Book of Household Management (1861);[79] Mary Cole's 1789 work The Lady's Complete Guide;[80] Richard Briggs's 1788 book The English Art of Cookery; The Universal Cook (1773) by John Townshend; Mary Smith's The Complete House-keeper and Professed Cook (1772);[81] and John Farley's 1783 book The London Art of Cookery.[82]

Handwritten copies of individual recipes have been located in family recipe books around England, and Queen Victoria copied several of Raffald's recipes, including one for "King Solomon's Temple in Flummery", when she was a princess.[43]

Ayto states that Raffald was possibly the person who invented the Eccles cake.[83] The food writer Alan Davidson observes that Raffald's recipe—for "sweet patties"—was the basis from which the Eccles cake was later developed.[84] Raffald also played an important role in the development of the wedding cake. Hers was the first recipe for a "Bride Cake" that is recognisable as a modern wedding cake.[85][86] Although cakes had been a traditional part of nuptials, her version differed from previous recipes by the use of what is now called royal icing over a layer of almond paste or icing.[87][88] Simon Charsley, in the Encyclopedia of Food and Culture, considers that Raffald's basis for her cake "became the distinguishing formula for British celebration cakes of increasing variety" over the next century.[89]

Raffald has been admired by several modern cooks and food writers. The 20th-century cookery writer Elizabeth David references Raffald several times in her articles, collected in Is There a Nutmeg in the House,[90] which includes a recipe for apricot ice cream.[91] In her 1984 book, An Omelette and a Glass of Wine, David includes Raffald's recipes for potted ham with chicken, potted salmon, and lemon syllabub.[92] In English Bread and Yeast Cookery (1977), David includes recipes for crumpets, barm pudding, "wegg" (caraway seed cake) and bath buns.[93] The food writer Jane Grigson admired Raffald's work, and in her 1974 book English Food, she included five of Raffald's recipes: bacon and egg pie (a quiche lorraine with a pastry lid); "whet" (anchovy fillets and cheese on toast); potted ham with chicken; crème brûlée; and orange custards.[94]

Raffald is quoted around 270 times in the Oxford English Dictionary,[95] including for the terms "bride cake",[96] "gofer-tongs",[97] "hedgehog soup"[98] and "Hottentot pie".[99] A blue plaque marked the site of the Bulls Head pub which Raffald ran. It was damaged in the 1996 Manchester bombing and replaced in 2011 on the Marks & Spencer Building, Exchange Square.[100][101]

In 2013 Arley Hall introduced some of Raffald's recipes into the menu at the hall's restaurant, which caters for public visitors. Steve Hamilton, Arley Hall's general manager stated that Raffald is "a huge character in Arley's history and it is only right that we mark her contribution to the estate's past".[102] Arley Hall considers Raffald "the Delia Smith of the 18th century".[103][o]

Notes and references

Notes

^ Jump up to:a b The sources vary over the number of daughters the Raffalds had. The historian Roy Shipperbottom, who inspected the records of the collegiate church at which Raffald attended, reports that there were six daughters baptised (between March 1766 and September 1774); he says that many of the higher figures quoted came from repeating an unverified source.[14] Nancy Cox, writing in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biographystates the Raffalds had "at least nine" daughters;[1] the food writer Jane Grigson puts the number at fifteen or sixteen;[15] and the historian Eric Quayle says sixteen.[16]

Doncaster

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Doncaster

Doncaster Skyline with the minster in the foreground

Doncaster

Shown within the Borough of Doncaster

Show map of the Borough of Doncaster Show map of South Yorkshire Show all

Population

109,805 (2011 Census)[1]

OS grid reference

SE5702

Metropolitan borough

Doncaster

Metropolitan county

South Yorkshire

Region

Yorkshire and the Humber

Country

England

Sovereign state

United Kingdom

Post town

DONCASTER

Postcode district

DN1-DN12

Dialling code

01302

Police

South Yorkshire

Fire

South Yorkshire

Ambulance

Yorkshire

UK Parliament

Constituency Map

Doncaster Central

Doncaster North

Don Valley

Website

Doncaster Council

List of places

UK

England

Yorkshire

53.515°N 1.133°WCoordinates: 53.515°N 1.133°W

Doncaster (/ˈdɒŋkəstər/, /-kæs-/[2][3]) is a large minster and market town in South Yorkshire, England. Together with its surrounding suburbs and settlements, the town forms part of the Metropolitan Borough of Doncaster, which had a mid-2019 est. population of 311,890.[4] The town itself has a population of 109,805.[1] The Doncaster Urban Area had a population of 158,141 in 2011[5] and includes Doncaster and neighbouring small villages. Part of the West Riding of Yorkshire until 1974, Doncaster is about 17 miles (30 km) north-east of Sheffield, with which it is served by an international airport, Doncaster Sheffield Airport in Finningley. Under the Local Government Act 1972, Doncaster was incorporated into a newly created metropolitan borough in 1974, itself incorporated with other nearby boroughs in the 1974 creation of the metropolitan county of South Yorkshire.

Landmarks from top left to bottom right:Doncaster Skyline

Doncaster Minster

Cusworth Hall

High Street and Frenchgate shopping centre

Doncaster Racecourse

Contents

1History1.1Roman

1.2Medieval

1.3Modern

2Politics

3Geography3.1Climate

3.2Green belt

4Economy4.1Distribution centres

4.2Regeneration initiatives

4.3Confectionery

4.4Coal and industrial expansion

4.5The railways and locomotive works

4.6Aviation

4.7Tractor production

5Transport5.1European

5.2National

5.3Regional

5.4Metropolitan borough

6Demography

7Culture and tourism7.1Theatre and cinemas

7.2Nightlife

8Sport8.1Doncaster Racecourse

8.2Rugby football

8.3Football

8.4Others

9Twin towns

10See also

11References

12External links

History[edit]

Ermine Street's alternative route: Eboracum (York) to Lagecium (Castleford), 21 miles, to Danum (Doncaster), 16 miles, to Agelocum (Littleborough), 21 miles, to Lindum (Lincoln), 13 miles. A separate spur connected Danum with Calcaria (near Tadcaster).

Roman[edit]

Possibly inhabited by earlier people, Doncaster grew up at the site of a Roman fort constructed in the 1st century at a crossing of the River Don. The 2nd-century Antonine Itinerary and the early-5th-century Notitia Dignitatum (Register of Dignitaries) called this fort Danum. The first section of the road to the Doncaster fort had probably been constructed since the early 50s, while a route through the north Derbyshire hills was opened in the latter half of the 1st century, possibly by Governor Gn. Julius Agricola during the late 70s. Doncaster provided an alternative direct land route between Lincoln and York. The main route between Lincoln and York was Ermine Street, which required parties to break into smaller units to cross the Humber in boats. As this was not always practical, the Romans considered Doncaster to be an important staging post. The Roman road through Doncaster appears on two routes recorded in the Antonine Itinerary. The itinerary include the same section of road between Lincoln and York, and list three stations along the route between these two coloniae. Routes 7 and 8 (Iter VII & VIII) are entitled "the route from York to London".

Several areas of known intense archaeological interest have been identified in the town, although many—in particular St Sepulchre Gate—remain hidden under buildings. The Roman fort is believed to have been located on the site that is now covered by St George's Minster, next to the River Don. The Doncaster garrison units are named in the Register produced near the end of Roman rule in Britain: it was the home of the Crispinian Horse, presumably named because it was originally recruited from among the tribes living near Crispiana in Pannonia Superior (near present-day Zirc in western Hungary), but possibly owing to Crispus, son of Constantine the Great, being headquartered there while his father was based in nearby York. The Register names the unit as under the command of the "Duke of the Britons".

In 1971 the Danum shield, a rectangular Roman shield dating to the 1st or 2nd century AD, was recovered from the site of the Danum fort in 1971.[6]

Map showing the boundary of the fortified Medieval township of Doncaster with four Gates

Medieval[edit]

Doncaster is generally believed to be the Cair Daun[7] listed as one of the 28 cities of Britain in the 9th-century History of the Britons traditionally attributed to Nennius.[8][10][11] It was certainly an Anglo-Saxon burh, during which period it received its present name: "Don-" (Old English: Donne) from the Roman settlement and river and "-caster" (-ceaster) from an Old English adaptation of the Latin castra ("military camp; fort"). The settlement was mentioned in the 1003 will of Wulfric Spott. Shortly after the Norman Conquest, Nigel Fossard refortified the town and constructed Conisbrough Castle. By the time of the Domesday Book, Hexthorpe in the wapentake of Strafforth was described as having a church and two mills.[12] The historian David Hey says that these facilities represent the settlement at Doncaster. He also suggests that the street name Frenchgate indicates that Fossard invited fellow Normans to trade in the town.[13] Doncaster was ceded to Scotland in the Treaty of Durham; it was never formally returned to England. [14][15]

12th-century Conisbrough Castle, open to the public and property of English Heritage

As the 13th century approached, Doncaster matured into a busy town; in 1194 King Richard I granted it national recognition with a town charter. Doncaster had a disastrous fire in 1204, from which it slowly recovered. At the time, buildings were built of wood, and open fireplaces were used for cooking and heating. Fire was a constant hazard.

Norman church of St Mary Magdalene, at demolition in 1846

In 1248, a charter was granted for Doncaster's market to be held around the Church of St Mary Magdalene, built in Norman times. In the 16th century, the church was adapted for use as the town hall. It was finally demolished in 1846.[13] Some 750 years on, the market continues to operate, with its busy traders located both under cover, at the 19th-century 'Corn Exchange' building (1873)[16] and in outside stalls. The Corn Exchange was extensively rebuilt in 1994 after a major fire.

During the 14th century, numerous friars arrived in Doncaster who were known for their religious enthusiasm and preaching. In 1307 the Franciscan friars (Greyfriars) arrived, and Carmelites (Whitefriars) arrived in the middle of the 14th century. In the Medieval period, other major features of the town included the Hospital of St Nicholas and the leper colony of the Hospital of St James, a moot hall, grammar school, and the five-arched stone town bridge, with a chapel dedicated to Our Lady of the Bridge. By 1334, Doncaster was the wealthiest town in southern Yorkshire and the sixth most important town in Yorkshire as a whole, even boasting its own banker. By 1379, it was recovering from the Black Death, which had reduced its population to 1,500. In October 1536, the Pilgrimage of Grace ended in Doncaster. This was a rebellion led by the lawyer Robert Aske, who commanded 40,000 people of Yorkshire against Henry VIII in protest about the monarch's Dissolution of the Monasteries. Many of Doncaster's streets are named with the suffix 'gate'. The word 'gate' is derived from the old Danish word 'gata,' which meant street. During Medieval times, craftsmen or tradesmen with similar skills, tended to live in the same street. Baxter is an ancient word for baker: Baxtergate was the bakers' street. Historians believe that 'Frenchgate' may be named after French-speaking Normans who settled on this street.

The Medieval township of Doncaster is known to have been protected by earthen ramparts and ditches, with four substantial gates as entrances to the town. These gates were located at Hall Gate, St Mary's Bridge (old), St Sepulchre Gate and Sunny Bar. Today the gates at Sunny Bar are commemorated by huge 'Boar Gates'; similarly, the entrance to St Sepulchre Gate is commemorated with white marble 'Roman Gates'. The boundary of the town principally extended from the River Don, along a route formed by what is now Market Road, Silver Street, Cleveland Street and Printing Office Street.

St George's Minster is a grade I listed building and was designed by Sir George Gilbert Scott in the 1850s.[17]

Modern[edit]

Cusworth Hall front

Because access into town was restricted, some officeholders secured charters to collect tolls. In 1605, King James I granted to William Levett of Doncaster, brother of York merchant Percival Levett, the right to levy tolls at Friar's and St Mary's bridges.[citation needed] Having served as mayors and aldermen of Doncaster, the Levetts probably believed they could control a monopoly. In 1618 the family began enforcing it but, by 1628, the populace revolted. Capt. Christopher Levett, Percival's son, petitioned Parliament to enforce the tolls. But Parliament disagreed, calling the tolls "a grievance to the subjects, both in creation and execution," and axed the Levett monopoly.[18] (Doncaster's Levet Road is named for this family, as are the nearby hamlets of Hooton Levitt and the largely extinct Levitt Hagg, where much of the town's early limestone was quarried.)

During the 16th and 17th centuries, the town of Doncaster continued to expand, although it suffered several outbreaks of plague between 1562 and 1606. Each time the plague struck down significant numbers of the town's population.

During the campaign of the First English Civil War, King Charles I marched by Bridgnorth, Lichfield and Ashbourne to Doncaster, where on 18 August 1645 he was met by great numbers of Yorkshire gentlemen who had rallied to his cause. On 2 May 1664, Doncaster was rewarded with the title of 'Free Borough' by way of the King (Charles I's son, King Charles II) expressing his gratitude for Doncaster's allegiance.

Doncaster has traditionally been a prosperous area[19] within the wapentake of Stafford and Tickhill.[20] The borough was known for its rich landowners with vast estates and huge stately homes such as Brodsworth Hall, Cantley Hall, Cusworth Hall, Hickleton Hall, Nether Hall and Wheatley Hall (demolished 1934). This wealth is evidenced in the luxurious and historic gilded 18th-century Mansion House on High Street. This land ownership developed over what is an ancient market place and large buildings were erected in the 19th century, including the Market Hall and the Corn Exchange. The old Doncaster Guildhall in Frenchgate was designed by John Butterfield with a tetrastyle portico and completed in 1847: it was demolished in the redevelopment of the 1960s.[21]

Perhaps the most striking surviving building is St George's Minster, constructed in the 19th century and promoted from a parish church in 2004.[22]

Doncaster was already a communications centre at this time. Doncaster sat on the Great North Road or A1, due to its strategic geographical importance and essentially Roman inheritance. This was the primary route for all traffic from London to Edinburgh and Doncaster benefited from its location.

Politics[edit]

Doncaster is represented in the House of Commons by three MPs; two constituencies are currently held by Labour and one by the Conservatives. Rosie Winterton represents Doncaster Central, former Labour Party leader, Ed Miliband represents Doncaster North, and Nick Fletcher represents Don Valley.

Doncaster is one of only twelve UK boroughs to have a directly elected mayor, a position currently held by Labour's Ros Jones.

In September 2014, UKIP held its annual party conference at Doncaster Racecourse. UKIP party leader Nigel Farage claimed that by holding the conference in Doncaster, UKIP were "now parking our tanks on the Labour Party's lawn" referring to Labour leader Ed Miliband's Doncaster North constituency. Shortly afterwards in the seat, at the 2015 general election, UKIP won 8,928 votes to Labour's 20,708. In the 2016 EU Referendum, however, Doncaster voted 69% to leave the European Union.[23][24]

Geography[edit]

High Street and Frenchgate shopping centre

Doncaster is a large settlement and borough in South Yorkshire. The borough expanded dramatically in population with the development of coal mining. Closure of coal mines in the 1970s, and the early 1980s caused some economic difficulties; the town then developed its service industry; the already good communication links with the rest of the UK supported this development.

The Doncaster skyline is dominated by the minster in the middle of the town. The Frenchgate Shopping Centre holds an important position in the skyline, along with the Doncaster College Hub building and Cusworth Hall. Cusworth Hall is an 18th-century Grade I listed country house in Cusworth, near Doncaster.[25] Set in the landscaped parklands of Cusworth Park, Cusworth Hall is a good example of a Georgian country house.

Most of the old Doncaster College, the Council House and surrounding buildings have been demolished, and work has commenced to replace them with more modern facilities including a new theatre, council house and hotel which together will form the Doncaster Civic and Cultural Quarter. There are also plans for expansion onto land north of the new college (The Hub) if it gains university status.

Potteric Carr, including Potteric Carr Nature Reserve, lies to the south.

Climate[edit]

Doncaster has a maritime climate, lacking extreme temperatures, like the rest of the British Isles. The town lies at a low elevation in the Don Valley, in the lee of the Pennines, and inland from the North Sea, meaning daytime summer temperatures are no lower than parts of South East England, despite the more northerly location. The nearest weather station is RAF Finningley, now known as Doncaster Sheffield Airport, located about 5.5 miles (8.9 km) to the south-east of Doncaster town centre, and at a similar elevation.

The Doncaster area is about as far north as the 21.5 °C (70.7 °F) average July/August maximum temperature isotherm reaches – Indeed, the August 1990 record high of 35.5 °C (95.9 °F)[26] is the most northerly temperature above 35 °C (95 °F) in the British Isles. The nearby town of Bawtry just slightly further south still holds the UK's September monthly record high temperature of 35.6 °C (96.1 °F),[27] set in 1906. Typically, the warmest day of the year should reach 29.1 °C (84.4 °F)[28] and 12.58 days will report a daytime maximum of 25.1 °C (77.2 °F) or above.

The absolute minimum temperature stands at −13.5 °C (7.7 °F),[29] set during December 1981. However, online records only relate to the period 1960–2000, so lower temperatures may have been recorded at nearby locations outside of this timeframe. According to the 1971–2000 period, 51.9 nights of the year will record an air frost on average.

Typically 106.9 days[30] of the year will report 1mm or more of rainfall. Total annual precipitation is slightly below 560 mm (22 in),[31] comparable to the driest parts of the United Kingdom, due to Doncaster's location in the rain shadow of the Pennines.

hideClimate data for Doncaster (DSA)[a], elevation: 12 m (39 ft), 1981–2010 normals, extremes 1960–2000

Month

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep

Oct

Nov

Dec

Year

Record high °C (°F)

14.5

(58.1)

17.9

(64.2)

23.6

(74.5)

22.7

(72.9)

28.4

(83.1)

32.1

(89.8)

32.2

(90.0)

35.5

(95.9)

27.3

(81.1)

27.7

(81.9)

18.5

(65.3)

15.5

(59.9)

35.5

(95.9)

Average high °C (°F)

7.3

(45.1)

7.8

(46.0)

10.5

(50.9)

13.0

(55.4)

16.4

(61.5)

19.5

(67.1)

21.9

(71.4)

21.7

(71.1)

18.7

(65.7)

14.3

(57.7)

10.1

(50.2)

7.4

(45.3)

14.1

(57.4)

Daily mean °C (°F)

4.2

(39.6)

4.4

(39.9)

6.6

(43.9)

8.6

(47.5)

11.6

(52.9)

14.7

(58.5)

16.9

(62.4)

16.6

(61.9)

14.2

(57.6)

10.6

(51.1)

6.9

(44.4)

4.4

(39.9)

9.9

(49.8)

Average low °C (°F)

1.0

(33.8)

1.0

(33.8)

2.6

(36.7)

4.1

(39.4)

6.7

(44.1)

9.9

(49.8)

11.9

(53.4)

11.5

(52.7)

9.6

(49.3)

6.8

(44.2)

3.6

(38.5)

1.3

(34.3)

5.9

(42.6)

Record low °C (°F)

−13.3

(8.1)

−10.3

(13.5)

−9.3

(15.3)

−5.4

(22.3)

−3.5

(25.7)

−0.6

(30.9)

3.2

(37.8)

3.7

(38.7)

−1.1

(30.0)

−3.6

(25.5)

−7.5

(18.5)

−13.5

(7.7)

−13.5

(7.7)

Average precipitation mm (inches)

44.4

(1.75)

32.2

(1.27)

37.3

(1.47)

47.2

(1.86)

43.4

(1.71)

63.0

(2.48)

49.5

(1.95)

52.4

(2.06)

52.0

(2.05)

53.8

(2.12)

50.5

(1.99)

48.8

(1.92)

574.5

(22.62)

Average precipitation days (≥ 1.0 mm)

9.9

7.7

9.2

8.8

8.6

9.0

7.5

9.6

10.1

11.0

109.2

Mean monthly sunshine hours

59.1

77.4

108.7

148.0

189.5

174.6

190.6

178.2

135.2

101.5

64.4

50.5

1,477.5

Source 1: Met Office[32]

Source 2: KNMI[33]

^ Weather station is located 6 miles (10 km) from the Doncaster town centre.

Green belt[edit]

Further information: South and West Yorkshire Green Belt

Doncaster is within a green belt region that extends into the wider surrounding counties. First defined in 1966,[34] the policy is controlled throughout the town by the local planning authority, Doncaster council. It is in place to reduce urban sprawl, prevent areas in the Doncaster conurbation from further uncontrolled convergence, protect the identity of outlying communities, encourage brownfield reuse, and preserve nearby countryside. This is achieved by restricting inappropriate development within the designated areas, and imposing stricter conditions on permitted building.[34]

It surrounds the side of the urban area west of the East Coast Line, preventing suburbs such as Sprotborough, New Edlington, Old Edlington, Scawsby and New Rossington merging. A subsidiary aim of the green belt is to encourage recreation and leisure interests,[34] with rural landscape features, greenfield areas and facilities including the River Calder and valley west of Hexthorpe; Hexthorpe Park; Cusworth Hall, museum and country park; Potteric Carr and Huxter Well Marsh; and the Trans Pennine Trail.

Economy[edit]

Doncaster Market Place Panoramic

The High Street in Doncaster town centre.

Doncaster emerged as an industrial centre in the late 18th century to 20th century. Its communication links, particularly its waterways, meant that Doncaster became extremely busy and experienced vast migration to its centre. Underneath Doncaster lies a huge natural resource by way of deep seam coal. Recently[when?] there has been an expansion in commercial and residential developments along with good transportation links with the rest of the United Kingdom.

Distribution centres[edit]

Due to its proximity to major urban centres and motorway/rail infrastructure, Doncaster has a number of major distribution centres, including the 420 acre Doncaster International Railport, which dispatches goods to Europe by rail. Large warehousing and logistic capabilities for retailers such as Next, Tesco, IKEA, Amazon.com, Lidl and Faberge are also sited there. The B&Q distribution centre next to the DFS UK headquarters at Redhouse A1(M) junction 38 was the largest free-standing warehouse in the UK[when?]. A significant proportion of fresh and frozen goods for northern supermarkets is dispatched by road from Doncaster.

Regeneration initiatives[edit]

Frenchgate shopping centre

On 5 March 2004, Doncaster was granted Fairtrade Town status. In recent years, its centre has undergone redevelopment including the construction of an Education City campus, currently the largest education investment of its kind in the UK.[citation needed] Over the last few years the Doncaster Lakeside, which is home to the Doncaster Rovers ground, has undergone modernisation. Doncaster has a bowling alley and a cinema near Lakeside. 'The Dome', opened in 1989, by Princess Diana, contains a swimming pool, gym and ice rink, as well as a café. The Frenchgate Centre, a shopping centre and transport interchange, has been extended to connect with the railway station and bus station. Lakeside Village, a retail outlet with some 45 retail shops and restaurants is located along the A6182 dual carriageway. The Waterdale area of the town centre is currently undergoing rejuvenation, with a new theatre (known as CAST), new civic offices and a new public square already having been completed, on the site of the old Waterdale car park. The old council house and civic theatre have been demolished and new housing is being constructed both in the town itself, opposite Doncaster Racecourse and in out of town suburbs.

Confectionery[edit]

During the 19th and 20th century a number of confectioners were based in Doncaster including Parkinson's[35] the Butterscotch inventors, Nuttalls Mintoes[36] and Murray Mints. In August 2011 Parkinson's put their 190-year-old trademark up for sale on eBay.[37] The sale was completed in 2012 to Confection by Design in Harrogate.[citation needed]

Coal and industrial expansion[edit]

The waterways, River Don and Don Navigation were used to transport coal from Doncaster to the steel production centres at Rotherham, Scunthorpe and Sheffield. A large number of mining jobs were lost in the late 1980s, and today coal mining has ceased.

Rockware Glass is a specialist glass manufacturer. A production facility for chemical polymers was built on Wheatley Hall Road. It changed hands during its existence until DuPont closed it in the mid-1990s.

Steel foundries, rolling mills and wire mills were built close to the railways that brought steel from Rotherham and Sheffield. Bridon Ropes produces wire rope, including the ropes used at coal mines to haul coal and miners. It is claimed to be the largest wire rope manufacturing plant in Europe. Bridon supplied wire rope for the Olympic Stadium for the 2012 Olympic Games.[38]

During the First World War and Second World War, the town became involved in munitions manufacture.

The railways and locomotive works[edit]

Main article: Doncaster Works

During the Industrial Revolution the railway came to Doncaster, and the Great Northern Railway established the Doncaster Locomotive and Carriage Building Works. The reasons for this were Doncaster's communication links, the necessity to transport coal quickly and efficiently and Doncaster's expertise in specialist metal products. An extensive housing programme was undertaken for the increased population. The Chairman of the Great Northern, anxious about the workers and their families' spiritual welfare, persuaded the directors to contribute towards the building of St James' Church, which became known as the "Plant Church". The railway also built St James' School. The Doncaster Plant became famous for building LNER locomotives Flying Scotsman and Mallard, as well as many thousands more locomotives.[39] Current plant owner Wabtec continues to do refurbishment in Doncaster.

Doncaster railway station

Today, Doncaster railway station, on the East Coast Main Line, is linked to many towns and cities across the UK such as Wakefield, Leeds, Hull, Sheffield, Manchester, Birmingham, London, York, Darlington, Newcastle upon Tyne, Berwick-upon-Tweed, Edinburgh, Motherwell, Glasgow, and Lincoln.

Doncaster PSB is one of the largest signalling centres on the UK network, controlling hundreds of route miles of railway. Doncaster International Railport and Doncaster iPort are important road-rail intermodal terminals.

The rail freight company DB Cargo UK has its headquarters in Doncaster.[40]

Also near by is one of the two National Collage for Advance Transport and Infrastructure Campuses which specialises in courses relating to the railways and transport systems.[41]

Aviation[edit]

Main article: RAF Doncaster

Doncaster Sheffield Airport

In 1909 Doncaster Racecourse was chosen as the venue for an airshow, after the world's first international air display in Reims, France in 1909. Around a dozen aviators were present, the most famous being Léon Delagrange and Roger Sommer. Samuel Cody (no relation to William F. Cody) in an attempt to win a prize offered by the Daily Mail for the first British pilot in a British aeroplane to fly a circular mile signed British naturalisation papers in front of the crowd with the band playing both God Save the King and the Star Spangled Banner. Unfortunately, he crashed his aeroplane on the first day of the meeting and made no significant flights.

During World War I fighters based first from the racecourse, then a temporary airstrip near Finningley (later RAF Finningley and now Doncaster Sheffield Airport) and finally, in 1916, from a newly built airfield alongside the racecourse, were deployed to defend the east coast against Zeppelins. On a number of occasions fighters took off to search for the intruders but none were ever seen. The Royal Flying Corps station trained pilots for the war in France. Within months of the war ending the entire station was put up for sale and two of its three Belfast hangars, the same type of hangar that now forms the basis for the Royal Air Force Museum at Hendon, were sold to a Sheffield motor manufacturing company for storage and assembly at Finningley. The third of the hangars stayed in place, mainly housing buses, until the 1970s when it was knocked down and replaced with modern buildings.

In 1920 the Government asked local authorities to assist in the formation of a chain of airfields so the country would not lag behind other nations in the provision of civil air services. Doncaster took heed and, with expert advice from Alan Cobham, on 26 May 1934, opened its 'aviation centre'. Development of the airfield continued and on 1 July 1936 an international service was opened to Amsterdam. On 1 November 1938, after long discussions with the Air Ministry, 616 (South Yorkshire) Squadron of the Royal Auxiliary Air Force was formed. Shortly after the outbreak of war in 1939 the squadron went to its battle station and played a part in the Battle of Britain. After the departure of 616 squadron its place was taken by the formation of 271 (Transport) Squadron composed mainly of requisitioned civilian aircraft and obsolescent twin engined bombers. 616 squadron was the first Allied jet fighter squadron, equipped with the Gloster Meteor, famed for using their wingtips to throw German V-1 Flying Bombs off course. In 1944, after being equipped with American-made Douglas DC-3 "Dakotas", the squadron moved south to take part in Operation 'Overlord' and later in the airborne invasion at Arnhem where Flight Lieutenant David Lord was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross.

After the war the airfield reverted to civilian flying and finally closed in 1992.

Tractor production[edit]

Ploughing by tractor

In 1930, International Har86-06-0

^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 16 March 2016. Retrieved 16 April2016.

^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 22 October 2016. Retrieved 16 April2016.

^ Brother of John Howard Hinton.

^ "places to visit in Doncaster". visitdoncaster.co.uk. Archived from the original on 2 November 2010. Retrieved 23 December 2011.

^ Hoe, Danielle (23 May 2020). "7 bizarre facts you never knew about Doncaster". YorkshireLive. Retrieved 21 October 2020.

^ "New £22m arts venue opens in Doncaster". What's on Stage. 2 September 2013. Archived from the original on 6 December 2013. Retrieved 30 November 2013.

^ "Herten Triangle". Business Doncaster. Archived from the original on 16 October 2018. Retrieved 15 October 2018.

^ "British towns twinned with French towns". England: Archant Community Media Ltd. Archived from the original on 5 July 2013. Retrieved 11 July 2013.

^ "Städtepartnerschaften" (in German). Herten, Germany: Rathaus Stadt Herten. Archived from the original on 3 September 2012. Retrieved 30 March 2015.

^ "Sister Cities". Sister Cities Association of Wilmington. Archived from the original on 28 September 2013. Retrieved 25 September 2013.

External links[edit]

Wikimedia Commons has media related to Doncaster.

Doncaster travel guide from Wikivoyage

The Doncaster Council website

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^ Some sources spell the surname "Whittaker",[3][4] although the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography and the National Portrait Gallery, among others, use Whitaker.[1][5]

^ £16 in 1760 equates to around £2,437 in 2021, according to calculations based on the Consumer Price Index measure of inflation.[8]

^ John was described by the reporter and antiquary John Harland as being "a very handsome, gentlemanly, intelligent man, about six feet (1.8 m) in height".[10] John, who had been raised in Stockport, Lancashire, had worked at Arley Hall since 1 January 1760 and was on a salary of £20 a year.[11] (£20 in 1760 equates to around £3,046 in 2021, according to calculations based on the Consumer Price Index measure of inflation.[8]

^ The historian Hannah Barker, in her examination of businesswomen in northern England, puts the address as 12 Market Place.[19]

^ The full title of the work is The Experienced English House-keeper: For the Use and Ease of Ladies, House-Keepers, Cooks, &c.: Wrote Purely from Practice, and Dedicated to the Hon. Lady Elizabeth Warburton, Whom the Author Lately Served as House-keeper: Consisting of Near 800 Original Receipts, Most of Which Never Appeared in Print.[24]

^ £800 in 1769 equates to around £112,000 in 2021, according to calculations based on the Consumer Price Index measure of inflation.[8]

^ £1,400 in 1769 equates to around £196,000 in 2021, according to calculations based on the Consumer Price Index measure of inflation.[8]

^ The 1772 Dublin printing and 1773 London printing are both classed as the second edition.[36]

^ The full title of the work was The Manchester Directory for the Year 1772. Containing an Alphabetical List of the Merchants, Tradesmen, and Principal Inhabitants in the Town of Manchester, with the Situation of Their Respective Warehouses, and Places of Abode.[38]

^ Lancashire was growing quickly in this period. The population of Salford Hundred, which included Manchester, grew from 96,516 in 1761 to 301,251 in 1801, an average annual growth rate of nearly 3 per cent.[40] Manchester had a population of around 30,000 in 1772.[41]

^ Raffald used the phrase when describing how to preserve bacon by using salt.[58]

^ The recipe, "To barbicue a pig" took four hours to barbecue a whole ten-week-old pig.[62]

^ These include Margaret R. Hunt's The Middling Sort: Commerce, Gender, and the Family in England, 1680–1780 (1996),[69] Hannah Barker's 2006 work The Business of Women: Female Enterprise and Urban Development in Northern England 1760–1830[70]and P. J. Corfield's studies in the Urban History journal.[71][72]

^ The American social historian Janet Theophano calls Raffald "the Martha Stewart of her time".[104]

References

^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Cox 2004.

^ Shipperbottom 1997, p. vii.

^ Aylett & Ordish 1965, p. 126.

^ Quayle 1978, p. 101.

^ "Elizabeth Raffald (née Whitaker)". National Portrait Gallery.

^ Shipperbottom 1997, pp. vii–viii.

^ Cox 2004; Foster 1996, p. 260; Shipperbottom 1997, p. viii.

^ Jump up to:a b c d Clark 2018.

^ Aylett & Ordish 1965, pp. 126–127.

^ Jump up to:a b c d e Harland 1843, p. 149.

^ Foster 1996, pp. 258–260, 269.

^ Jump up to:a b Foster 1996, p. 260.

^ Shipperbottom 1997, pp. ix, x.

^ Jump up to:a b Shipperbottom 1997, p. xii.

^ Jump up to:a b Grigson 1993, p. 251.

^ Quayle 1978, p. 102.

^ Jump up to:a b c Shipperbottom 1996, p. 234.

^ Raffald 1763, p. 4.

^ Jump up to:a b Barker 2006, p. 76.

^ Foster 1996, p. 206.

^ Raffald 1766, p. 3.

^ Raffald 1767, p. 2.

^ Raffald 1769, Dedication page.

^ Raffald 1769, Title page.

^ Jump up to:a b Shipperbottom 1996, p. 235.

^ Procter 1866, p. 160.

^ Jump up to:a b c Raffald 1769, p. i.

^ Barker 2006, p. 77.

^ Jump up to:a b Raffald 1769, p. ii.

^ Jump up to:a b Quayle 1978, p. 103.

^ Colquhoun 2007, p. 199.

^ Raffald 1771b, p. 1; Maclean 2004, p. 121; Shipperbottom 1996, p. 236.

^ Quayle 1978, p. 100.

^ Jump up to:a b c Shipperbottom 1997, p. xv.

^ Harland 1843, p. 147.

^ Jump up to:a b Maclean 2004, p. 121.

^ Raffald 1771a, p. 4.

^ Jump up to:a b c Hunt 1996, p. 267.

^ Jump up to:a b c d Shipperbottom 1997, p. xiv.

^ Wrigley 2007, p. 66.

^ Corfield & Kelly 1984, p. 22.

^ Raffald 1772, p. 1.

^ Jump up to:a b c d e Shipperbottom 1997, p. xvi.

^ Jump up to:a b c Barker 2006, p. 132.

^ Jump up to:a b c Shipperbottom 1996, p. 236.

^ Corfield 2012, p. 36.

^ Harland 1843, pp. 150–151.

^ Harland 1843, p. 151.

^ Jump up to:a b Colquhoun 2007, p. 214.

^ (Raffald 1769, pp. 258, 133, 265, 261, 289); recipes cited respectively.

^ Colquhoun 2007, pp. 209, 215.

^ Aylett & Ordish 1965, p. 130.

^ Colquhoun 2007, p. 231.

^ Jump up to:a b Aresty 1964, p. 122.

^ Raffald 1769, pp. 123–124.

^ Jump up to:a b Colquhoun 2007, p. 215.

^ Raffald 1769, p. 125.

^ Raffald 1769, p. 285.

^ Raffald 1769, p. 317.

^ Ayto 1990, pp. 88, 321.

^ Miller 2014, p. 142.

^ Raffald 1769, p. 99.

^ Raffald 1769, p. 70.

^ Corfield 2012, p. 26.

^ Barker 2006, p. 49.

^ Hunt 1996, pp. 130–131.

^ Barker 2006, pp. 75–76.

^ Hunt 1996, p. 130.

^ Hunt 1996, pp. 129–130.

^ Barker 2006, pp. 47–50, 75–77, 132–133.

^ Corfield 2012, pp. 26, 36.

^ Corfield & Kelly 1984, pp. 22, 32.

^ Barker 2006, p. 48.

^ Colquhoun 2007, p. 213.

^ Hardy 2011, p. 95.

^ Quayle 1978, p. 104.

^ Sherman 2004, pp. 36–37.

^ Lehman 2003, 2302.

^ Hughes 2006, p. 209.

^ Davidson 1983, p. 102.

^ Lehman 2003, 22337, 3253.

^ Lucraft 1992, p. 7.

^ Ayto 1990, p. 130.

^ Davidson 2014, p. 273.

^ Charsley 1988, pp. 235–236.

^ MacGregor 1993, p. 6.

^ Wilson 2005, p. 70.

^ Charsley 1988, p. 236.

^ Charsley 2003, p. 522.

^ David 2001, pp. 251, 266.

^ David 2001, p. 271.

^ David 2014, pp. 222, 225, 235.

^ David 1979, pp. 344–345, 420, 433 and 485–487, 480–481.

^ (Grigson 1993, pp. 38, 124, 187, 249, 251); recipes cited respectively.

^ Brewer 2012, p. 103.

^ "bride cake". Oxford English Dictionary.

^ "gofer-tongs". Oxford English Dictionary.

^ "hedgehog soup". Oxford English Dictionary.

^ "Hottentot pie". Oxford English Dictionary.

^ "Blue commemorative plaques in Manchester". Manchester City Council.

^ "Manchester returns to the tradition of bronze plaques". BBC.

^ "Georgian chef Elizabeth Raffald's recipes return to Arley Hall menu". BBC.

^ "The Gardener's Kitchen". Arley Hall & Gardens.

^ Theophano 2003, p. 203.

Sources

Books

Aresty, Esther (1964). The Delectable Past. New York: Simon and Schuster. OCLC 222645438.

Aylett, Mary; Ordish, Olive (1965). First Catch Your Hare. London: Macdonald. OCLC 54053.

Ayto, John (1990). The Glutton's Glossary. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-4150-2647-5.

Barker, Hannah (2006). The Business of Women: Female Enterprise and Urban Development in Northern England 1760–1830. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-929971-3.

Charsley, Simon (2003). "Wedding Cake". In Katz, Solomon H. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Food and Culture. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 521–523.

Colquhoun, Kate (2007). Taste: the Story of Britain Through its Cooking. New York: Bloomsbury. ISBN 978-1-5969-1410-0.

David, Elizabeth (1979) [1977]. English Bread and Yeast Cookery. Harmondsworth: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-1402-9974-8.

David, Elizabeth (2001) [2000]. Is There a Nutmeg in the House?. Jill Norman (ed). London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-029290-9.

David, Elizabeth (2014). An Omelette and a Glass of Wine. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-1404-6846-5.

Davidson, Alan (2014). The Oxford Companion to Food. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-104072-6.

Grigson, Jane (1993) [1974]. English Food. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-1410-4586-3.

Hardy, Sheila (2011). The Real Mrs Beeton: The Story of Eliza Acton. Stroud, Gloucestershire: The History Press. ISBN 978-0-7524-6122-9.

Harland, John (1843). Collectanea Relating to Manchester and Its Neighbourhood at Various Periods. 2. Manchester: Chetham Society.

Hughes, Kathryn (2006). The Short Life and Long Times of Mrs Beeton. London: HarperCollins Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7524-6122-9.

Hunt, Margaret R. (1996). The Middling Sort: Commerce, Gender, and the Family in England, 1680–1780. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-91694-4.

Lehman, Gilly (2003). The British Housewife: Cooking and Society in 18th-century Britain (Kindle ed.). Totness, Devon: Prospect Books. ISBN 978-1-909248-00-7.

MacGregor, Elaine (1993). Wedding Cakes: From Start to Finish. London: Souvenir Press. ISBN 978-0-285-63134-2.

Maclean, Virginia (2004). A Short-Title Catalogue of Household and Cookery Books Published in the English Tongue, 1701–1800. London: Prospect Books. ISBN 978-0-907325-06-2.

Miller, Tim (2014). Barbecue: a History. Lanham, MA: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-1-4422-2753-8.

Procter, Richard Wright (1866). Manchester in Holiday Dress. London: Simpkin, Marshall & Co.

Quayle, Eric (1978). Old Cook Books: An Illustrated History. London: Cassell. ISBN 978-0-289-70707-4.

Raffald, Elizabeth (1769). The Experienced English House-keeper. Manchester: J. Harrop. OCLC 28369687.

Sherman, Sandra (2004). Fresh from the Past: Recipes and Revelations from Moll Flanders' Kitchen. Lanham, MD: Taylor Trade Publishing. ISBN 978-1-58979-088-9.

Shipperbottom, Roy (1996). "Elizabeth Raffald (1733–1781)". In Walker, Harlan (ed.). Cooks & Other People: Proceedings of the Oxford Symposium on Food and Cookery, 1995. Totnes, Devon: Prospect Books. pp. 233–236. ISBN 978-0-907325-72-7.

Shipperbottom, Roy (1997). "Introduction". In Raffald, Elizabeth (ed.). The Experienced English Housekeeper. Lewes: Southover Press. ISBN 978-1-870962-13-1.

Theophano, Janet (2003). Eat My Words: Reading Women's Lives Through the Cookbooks They Wrote. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-6293-5.

Journals

Brewer, Charlotte (February 2012). "'Happy Copiousness'? OED's Recording of Female Authors of the Eighteenth Century". The Review of English Studies. 63 (258): 86–117. doi:10.1093/res/hgq102. JSTOR 41410091.

Charsley, Simon (January 1988). "The Wedding Cake: History and Meanings". Folklore. 99 (2): 232–241. doi:10.1080/0015587X.1988.9716445. JSTOR 1260461.

Corfield, Penelope J. (10 January 2012). "Business Leaders and Town Gentry in Early Industrial Britain: Specialist Occupations and Shared Urbanism". Urban History. 39 (1): 20–50. doi:10.1017/S0963926811000769. JSTOR 26398115.

Corfield, P. J.; Kelly, Serena (9 February 1984). "'Giving Directions to the Town': The Early Town Directories". Urban History. 11: 22–35. doi:10.1017/S0963926800006891. JSTOR 44610004.

Davidson, Alan (Winter 1983). "Food: The Natural History of British Cookery Books". The American Scholar. 52 (1): 98–106. JSTOR 41210911.

Foster, Charles (November 1996). "The History of the Gardens at Arley Hall, Cheshire". Garden History. 24 (2): 255–271. doi:10.2307/1587140. JSTOR 1587140.

Lucraft, Fiona (1992). "The London Art of Plagiarism, Part One". Petits Propos Culinaires. 42: 7–24. ISSN 0142-7857.

Wilson, Carol (May 2005). "Wedding Cake: A Slice of History". Gastronomica. 5 (2): 69–72. doi:10.1525/gfc.2005.5.2.69.

Wrigley, E. A. (February 2007). "English County Populations in the Later Eighteenth Century". The Economic History Review. 60 (1): 35–69. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0289.2006.00355.x. JSTOR 4121995. S2CID 153990070.

News

"Georgian chef Elizabeth Raffald's recipes return to Arley Hall menu". BBC. 6 April 2013.

"Manchester returns to the tradition of bronze plaques". BBC. 17 March 2011. Retrieved 20 May 2019.

Raffald, Elizabeth (22 November 1763). "E. Raffald". Manchester Mercury. p. 4.

Raffald, Elizabeth (14 October 1766). "Elizabeth Raffald". Manchester Mercury. p. 3.

Raffald, Elizabeth (28 July 1767). "Elizabeth Raffald, Confectioner". Manchester Mercury. p. 2.

Raffald, Elizabeth (21 May 1771a). "Elizabeth Raffald". Manchester Mercury. p. 4.

Raffald, Elizabeth (9 August 1771b). "This Day is Published, Price 6s. bound, The Second Edition of that Valuable Work The Experienced English Housekeeper by Elizabeth Raffald". Derby Mercury. p. 1.

Raffald, Elizabeth (25 August 1772). "John and Elizabeth Raffald". Manchester Mercury. p. 1.

Internet

"Blue commemorative plaques in Manchester". Manchester City Council. Retrieved 20 May 2019.

"bride cake". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 5 June 2019. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)

Clark, Gregory (2018). "The Annual RPI and Average Earnings for Britain, 1209 to Present (New Series)". MeasuringWorth. Retrieved 30 January 2018.

Cox, Nancy (23 September 2004). "Raffald [née Whitaker], Elizabeth". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/23008. (Subscription or UK public library membership required.)

"Elizabeth Raffald (née Whitaker)". National Portrait Gallery. Retrieved 1 May 2019.

"The Gardener's Kitchen". Arley Hall & Gardens. Retrieved 19 May 2019.

"gofer-tongs". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 5 June 2019. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)

"hedgehog soup". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 5 June 2019. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)

"Hottentot pie". Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. Retrieved 5 June 2019. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)

External links

Works by or about Elizabeth Raffald at Internet Archive

Works by Elizabeth Raffald at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

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